Can a Norway Spruce Live in the Willamette Valley

Abies grandis (Dougl. ex D. Don) Lindl.

Thousand Fir

Pinaceae -- Pine family

Marvin W. Foiles, Russel T. Graham, and David F. Olson, Jr.

Thousand fir (Abies grandis), also chosen lowland white fir, balsam fir, or yellow fir, is a rapid-growing tree that reaches its largest size in the rain woods of the Olympic Peninsula of Washington. One tree in that area measures 200 cm (78.9 in) in d.b.h., 70.four grand (231 ft) tall, and has a crown spread of fourteen m (46 ft). The species also has historic significance. The famous Barlow Road snub-trees on the s side of Mount Hood in Oregon were grand firs. They were used by early settlers to control the charge per unit of descent of their covered wagons on a particularly steep slope in their trek from eastward to west. Some of the rope-burned trees are nevertheless continuing after 150 years.

Habitat

Native Range

Thousand fir grows in the stream bottoms, valleys, and mount slopes of northwestern United States and southern British Columbia. Its wide geographical distribution is from latitude 51° to 39° N. and from longitude 125° to 114° Westward. In the Pacific coast region it grows in southern British Columbia mainly on the lee side of Vancouver Island and the next mainland, in the interior valleys and lowlands of western Washington and Oregon, and in northwestern California as far south as Sonoma Canton. The range in the continental interior extends from the Okanogan and Kootenay Lakes in southern British Columbia south through eastern Washington, northern Idaho, western Montana west of the Continental Dissever, and northeastern Oregon. The all-time commercial stands of grand fir are in the Nez Perce and Clearwater regions of northern Idaho (ix).

- The native range of grand fir.

Climate

Thou fir is found on a wide multifariousness of sites. Average annual atmospheric precipitation in its territory ranges from 510 to more than than 2540 mm (20 to 100 in) in western Washington and on Vancouver Isle. Annual precipitation in the Blue Mountains of eastern Oregon averages 360 to 990 mm (14 to 39 in). In northern Idaho, average annual precipitation is 510 to 1270 mm (xx to fifty in). Almost of this atmospheric precipitation occurs during winter. Generally 15 to 25 percent of the annual precipitation occurs during the growing flavor, May through August. On Vancouver Island, where average annual precipitation ranges from 680 to 2820 mm (27 to 111 in), only 50 to 130 mm (2 to 5 in) of rain falls during June, July, and Baronial. Average annual snowfall ranges from a few centimeters on some coastal sites to more than 1270 cm (500 in) in the mountains of the interior (9).

Average almanac temperatures range from 6° to 10° C (43° to 50° F); the average growing flavour temperature is xiv° to 19° C (57° to 66° F). The frost-free season varies, ranging from nearly sixty to more 250 days, and is very irregular from year to year. Frosts may occur in any month in the interior. The average growing flavor ranges from just 100 to 140 days in northern Idaho, 185 days on the Olympic Peninsula in western Washington, and 250 or more days in northern California (9).

Soils and Topography

Grand fir seems to grow equally well on soils derived from a multifariousness of parent materials, including sandstone, weathered lava (rock), or granite and gneiss. In the Pacific coast region and in the Willamette Valley of Oregon it grows most abundantly on deep, rich alluvial soils along streams and valley bottoms and on moist soils provided with seepage. In the inland regions it grows all-time on rich mineral soils of the valley bottoms, simply information technology likewise grows well on shallow, exposed soils of mountain ridges and pure pumice soils in cardinal and eastern Oregon, provided moisture is acceptable (ix). Near of the soils that support grand fir take been classified as Spodosols.

Grand fir grows on Vancouver Island and the adjacent mainland of British Columbia at elevations betwixt bounding main level and 305 one thousand (one,000 ft). In the southern interior of British Columbia it grows but in the moist valleys of such rivers every bit the Kootenay, Columbia, and Okanogan and their tributaries. Grand fir is predominantly a lowland species in western Washington, Oregon, and British Columbia. In western Washington information technology grows in valleys and stream bottoms having loftier ground-h2o levels. Elevations of these sites are usually between 180 and 305 m (590 and 1,000 ft). At elevations above 460 g (1,510 ft), grand fir is replaced by Pacific silvery fir (Abies amabilis). Grand fir is institute in western Oregon and in the lowlands of all the river regions, and in the lower west Cascades to an elevation of 915 grand (3,000 ft). In northern California it grows from most sea level to nigh 1525 g (5,000 ft) (9).

In the eastern Cascades of Washington, 915 to 1220 m (3,000 to iv,000 ft) is the upper altitude limit for m fir, while in the eastern Cascades of Oregon it grows at 1525 thou (five,000 ft). In the Inland Empire, including the Blue Mountains of Oregon, it is found equally high every bit 1830 thousand (6,000 ft) and as depression equally 460 thou (i,500 ft), merely commonly between 610 and 1525 m (two,000 and v,000 ft). In the Nez Perce region of central Idaho, it grows well at altitudes of 1220 to 1675 m (4,000 to 5,500 ft) (9).

Associated Forest Cover

Grand fir is either a seral or climax species in different woods types within its range. On moist sites it grows rapidly enough to compete with other seral species in the dominant overstory. On dry sites it becomes a shade-tolerant understory and eventually assumes dominance as climax conditions are approached.

Grand fir is represented in 17 forest comprehend types of western Due north America: it is the predominant species in simply ane, Grand Fir (Society of American Foresters Blazon 213) (26). It is a major component of vi other cover types: Western Larch (Blazon 212), Western White Pine (Type 215), Interior Douglas-Fir (Type 210), Western Hemlock (Type 224), Western Redcedar (Type 228), and Western Redcedar-Western Hemlock (Blazon 227). Grand fir appears sporadically in x other encompass types.

In northern Idaho, grand fir is the major climax tree species in seven habitat types and is an of import seral tree in the Thuja plicata, Tsuga heterophylla, and Abies lasciocarpa serial of habitat types (five). The Montana forest ecological classification recognizes an Abies grandis serial of three habitat types in which m fir is the major climax tree (23). Information technology is as well a small-scale climax or seral tree in four other types in Montana. In central Idaho, Steele and others (28) described an Abies grandis series that includes nine habitat types and five phases in which m fir is the climax tree.

The Abies grandis zone is the most all-encompassing midslope forest zone in the Pour Range of Oregon and southern Washington and the Blue Mountains of eastern Oregon. Grand fir is the climax tree species in 12 plant associations (15,xviii). It is also an important component of the mixed conifer communities in the Willamette Valley and Siskiyou Mountains of Oregon (16). In add-on, grand fir grows sporadically in the Tsuga heterophylla, Picea sitchensis, and Abies amabilis zones in the littoral forests of Washington and Oregon (eleven).

Grand fir sometimes grows in pure stands but is much more common in mixed coniferous and hardwood forests. In forests east of the Cascade crest, information technology is associated with western white pino (Pinus monticola), western larch (Larix occidentalis), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), western redcedar (Thuja plicata), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), ponderosa pino (Pinus ponderosa), and in certain areas, Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii), subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa), Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia), white fir (Abies concolor), incense-cedar (Libocedrus decurrens), sugar pino (Pinus lambertiana), Shasta red fir (Abies magnifica var. shastensis), and Oregon white oak (Quercus garryana).

Assembly of grand fir in northwestern Oregon, western Washington, and southwestern British Columbia include Sitka bandbox (Picea sitchensis), Pacific argent fir (Abies amabilis), and Port-Orford-cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana), in addition to western redcedar, western hemlock, western larch, and Douglas-fir. Information technology as well is associated with these coast hardwoods: bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum), Oregon ash (Fraxinus latifolia), cherry-red alder (Alnus rubra), black cottonwood, and Oregon white oak.

In southwestern Oregon and northwestern California, at the southern limits of the range, grand fir is found with redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), and at higher elevations with Shasta red fir, white fir, noble fir (Abies procera), subalpine fir, and western white pine.

Shrubs commonly associated with grand fir include pachistima (Pachistima myrsinites), bristly black currant (Ribes lacustre), Saskatoon serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia), Rocky Mountain maple (Acer glabrum), twinflower (Linnaea borealis), birchleaf spirea (Spiraea betulifolia), huckleberry (Vaccinium spp.), Utah honeysuckle (Lonicera utahensis), mallow ninebark (Physocarpus malvaceus), mutual snowberry (Symphoricarpos albus), baldhip rose (Rosa gymnocarpa), princes-pine (Chimaphila spp.), Spalding rose (Rosa nutkana var. hispida), oceanspray (Holodiscus discolor), creeping hollygrape (Berberis repens), willow (Salix spp.), thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus), rustyleaf menziesia (Menziesia ferruginea), and pyrola (Pyrola spp.).

Herbaceous species commonly institute in various associations with grand fir include queenscup (Clintonia uniflora), simulated solomons-seal (Smilacina stellata), goldthread (Coptis occidentalis), Pacific trillium (Trillium ovatum), sweetscented bedstraw (Galium triflorum), pathfinder (trailplant) (Adenocaulon bicolor), wildginger (Asarum caudatum), Piper anemone (Anemone piperi), violet (Viola spp.), sandwort (Arenaria macrophylla), heartleaf arnica (Arnica cordifolia), strawberry Fragaria spp.), rattlesnake plantain (Goodyera oblongifolia), western meadowrue (Thalictrum occidentale), coolwort (Tiarella spp.), fairybells (Disporum oreganum), white hawkweed (Hieracium albiflorum), and sweetroot (Osmorhiza spp.). Graminoids ofttimes associated with m fir are Columbia brome (Bromus vulgaris), pinegrass (Calamagrostis rubescens), western fescue (Festuca occidentalis), and sedge (Carex spp.). Additional species are associated with k fir in the coastal region, where it grows with western hemlock, coastal Douglas-fir, Sitka spruce, and redwood.

Life History

Reproduction and Early on Growth

Flowering and Fruiting- M fir copse are monoecious; male person and female flowers are borne in clusters on branchlets of the previous season'south growth in dissimilar parts of the aforementioned tree. Female person flowers, producing cones and seeds, are short, spherical to cylindrical, and stand singly and erect on the uppermost part of the crown. Male person flowers, pollen-bearing only, are ovoid or cylindrical and hang singly from the lower side of branches beneath the female person flowers. This organization favors cross-fertilization. The cones mature in one flavor. Time of flowering may vary over several months, depending on temperatures during the weeks preceding flowering. Flowering occurs from late March to mid-May at lower elevations of about coastal locations, and in June at the higher elevations of the inland locations. The cones, mostly yellowish-green and occasionally greenish-majestic, ripen from August to September of the same year, and seeds are dispersed approximately 1 month afterward (32).

Extreme frosts may occasionally inhibit normal cone and seed evolution. Several species of insects feed on the buds, conelets, and seeds of one thousand fir, sometimes destroying ten to 25 percentage of the yr's seed ingather (ix).

Seed Production and Broadcasting- Seed production begins at about 20 years of historic period and increases with age, diameter, and vigor of the tree. Eight-year observations of permanent sample plots in Idaho show that grand fir produced the fewest seeds of the species associated with western white pine. Grand fir produced no skillful crops and only two fair crops, while western white pine produced two good crops and three fair crops. During the same eight-year period, western hemlock produced five good crops and two fair crops (9). In the coastal forests of Washington, grand fir ranked higher than western white pino and intermediate amid upper gradient species in number of seeds produced per tree (22). Other sources place the interval between practiced seed crops at two to 3 years (10,32).

In the Inland Empire, a proficient cone crop for m fir is considered to be more than twoscore cones per tree. A fair ingather is 21 to xl cones per tree. Grand fir seeds caught annually in seed traps on two sample plots averaged 42,000/ha (17,000 acre) on the Kaniksu National Wood and 58,100/ha (23,500 acre) on the Coeur d'Alene National Forest. Viii-year observations of seed traps nether a 300-yr-old stand up on the Priest River Experimental Wood yielded 31,600 grand fir seeds per hectare (12,800 acre) annually (nine). The yield of cleaned seeds ranges from 26,200 to 63,100/kg (11,900 to 28,700/lb) and averages xl,500/kg (18,400/lb) (32).

When the cones are ripe, the scales fall away and release the large-winged seeds, leaving only the central spike. Seeds are dispersed by the current of air and rodents. Most of the seeds are disseminated in the early autumn, about 5 percent falling before September 1 and eighty per centum falling before the finish of October. Seeds sufficient to produce adequate reproduction may be distributed up to 120 g (400 ft) from the parent tree, but the boilerplate distance is about 45 to 60 thousand (150 to 200 ft). Seeds in the duff remain viable through only 1 overwinter flow (9).

Seedling Evolution- Grand fir seeds germinate in the jump post-obit one overwinter period on the ground. In natural stands, germination is quite variable only is seldom greater than 50 percentage because of embryo dormancy, insect infestation, and the perishable nature of the seeds. Seeds are oft so heavily infested with insects that an entire crop may be classed as a failure (ix).

Stratification under cool, moist weather condition speeds germination. Thousand fir seeds are typically stratified at 1° to 5° C (34° to 41° F) for fourteen to 42 days earlier nursery sowing in the bound. Results of greenhouse germination tests of grand fir seeds are highly variable. In 3 sandflat germination tests in the northern Rockies, grand fir had the everyman formation pct among major associates of the western white pine blazon (9). Average percentages were grand fir, 12; western larch, 30; Douglas-fir, 41; western white pine, 44; western hemlock, 65; and western redcedar, 73. As with other truthful firs, formation is epigeal.

In reported tests, germinative capacity ranged from 0 to 93 percent and averaged fifty percent (32). The variability and boilerplate 1000 fir germination are about average for the true firs.

Grand fir seed germination begins in late April or early May on exposed sites and a month subsequently protected sites where snow lingers belatedly. It is practically completed by July i on exposed sites and by Baronial 15 on protected sites. Formation is best on mineral soil, but on seed-tree cuttings, k fir germinates about as well on duff as on any other surface (nine).

Studies of seedling survival point that more than than xxx per centum of g fir seedlings die in the get-go flavor, and an boosted 10 percent dice in the second season. Losses drop off apace after the commencement 2 years, and seedlings 3 years old are fairly well established (9,24). Studies of mortality during the critical first twelvemonth indicate that early flavor losses are due principally to biotic agents, especially damping-off fungi. Fungi-caused mortality is very irregular, notwithstanding. Later in the flavor as the soil begins to dry out and temperatures rising, bloodshed is due principally to heat from insolation and drought. Surface-soil temperatures are less important under shade or on sheltered sites, and nether dense shade or on north slopes high temperatures do not cause expiry. Grand fir is relatively resistant to heat injury; it is equal to western white pine and Douglas-fir and more resistant than western larch, western hemlock, and western redcedar. Grand fir seedlings are relatively resistant to drought on areas exposed to full lord's day because deep initial root penetration protects them from drying of the surface soil. On heavily shaded, cool areas, drought is the well-nigh important physical cause of seedling mortality because initial root penetration is slow; fifty-fifty shallow drying of the surface soil may crusade drought bloodshed despite ample soil wet at deeper levels (9).

Initial survival and growth of grand fir are favored by a moderate overwood shade. Under full sun it is largely subordinate to faster growing, shade-intolerant species. Under partial overwood shade, grand fir is aggressive plenty to form a ascendant part of the reproduction. Later on 20 to 30 years, it makes most rapid growth in the open (ix).

Vegetative Reproduction- No information is currently available.

Sapling and Pole Stages to Maturity

Growth and Yield- Longevity of grand fir is intermediate among truthful firs; copse 250 years old are common and occasional trees may exist more than 300 years erstwhile. On optimum sites in the coastal lowlands of Washington, mature chiliad firs reach heights of 43 to 61 m (140 to 200 ft) at 51 to 102 cm (20 to 40 in) d.b.h.; occasionally they accomplish 76 m (250 ft) in summit and 152 cm (60 in) in d.b.h. (11). Grand fir in the redwood forests of California reaches d.b.h. and heights every bit corking as those attained in the coast Douglas-fir region. In northern Idaho grand fir normally grows to 35 to 46 m (115 to 151 ft) in acme at 64 to 102 cm (25 to forty in) in d.b.h. On the pumice soils of eastern Oregon it attains height of xxx to 40 m (98 to 131 ft) with d.b.h. of 51 to 91 cm (twenty to 36 in). On exposed ridges of the Inland Empire, heights of 15 to 21 grand (49 to 69 ft) and d.b.h. of 30 to 36 cm (12 to xiv in) are common (ix).

The rapid early peak growth virtually equals that of Douglas-fir on the Pacific coast and western white pine in Idaho. On Vancouver Island and western Washington sites, growth of 79 to 89 cm (31 to 35 in) per twelvemonth was reported. Trees 43 m (141 ft) tall at 50 years of age have been measured. In Idaho early height growth of 15 to 20 cm (6 to viii in) on average sites and 30 to 36 cm (12 to 14 in) on optimum sites has been reported. In the dry pumice soils of eastern Oregon, boilerplate juvenile height growth up to 13 cm (5 in) per yr has been reported. On these dry sites good height growth is delayed until the taproots accomplish footing h2o. At some time in the third decade, height growth receives considerable impetus and annual height growths of 51 to 89 cm (20 to 35 in) or more than are common (9).

Among pole-size trees, growth is nearly equal to the more shade-intolerant western white pino and Douglas-fir with which it is unremarkably associated. Grand fir ordinarily outgrows the more tolerant western hemlock and western redcedar.

Grand fir has been planted successfully in many European countries, where it is considered one of the most potentially productive species (2). In England, growth of one thousand fir plantations was compared with that of neighboring plantations of other commonly planted species, and the rate of growth of grand fir at 40 years of age oft equaled or exceeded that of other species such as Sitka spruce, Kingdom of norway spruce (Picea abies), and Douglas-fir (ii).

Grand fir seldom grows in pure stands except in areas of the Clearwater River drainage of north-central Idaho. Therefore, estimates of yields take value mainly in relation to mixed stands. Grand fir ranks amongst the most productive species in all the associations in which it grows. East of the Pour crest in Oregon and Washington, yields of grand or white fir stands at historic period 100 years range from 476 to 1330 grand³ /ha (6,800 to 19,000 ft³/acre) (four). In northern Idaho, where thou fir grows with western white pine, predicted yields of normal stands range from 470 to 1078 m/ha (6,720 to 15,400 Westward/acre) at age 100 (xiv). Estimates of mean almanac growth range from 8 to xiii m³/ha (114 to 186 ft³/acre) in Idaho (27) and 6 to x g³/ha (86 to 143 ft³/acre) in Montana (23). On the more fertile soils of England, growth rates of eighteen to twenty m³/ha (257 to 286 ft³/acre) to age 40 have been reported (2).

Rooting Habit- The 1000 fir root system is intermediate in evolution amongst its associated tree species. The anchoring taproot does not grow as chop-chop nor as securely as dry site associates such every bit ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, and lodgepole pino, only information technology grows faster and deeper than moisture site species such as western hemlock, western redcedar, and Engelmann spruce. Seedling roots penetrate the soil quickly enough in total sunlight to survive drought conditions in duff and surface soil. K fir produces roots under shaded weather condition, enabling it to survive in the understory. The adaptable root system contributes to the growth of one thousand fir over a broad range of sites and climatic conditions. A relatively deep taproot enables grand fir to survive and grow well on rather dry soils and exposed ridges. On moist sites, the taproot is largely replaced by more shallow lateral roots (ix).

Reaction to Competition- Grand fir is classed as shade-tolerant in all associations in which it occurs. In the Willamette Valley of Oregon, information technology is the climax blazon post-obit Douglas-fir and Oregon white oak. In the Inland Empire it is more tolerant than any of its assembly except western redcedar and western hemlock. Information technology is the climax type on sites also dry for redcedar or hemlock. In littoral British Columbia, 1000 fir is similar to Sitka spruce in tolerance; that is, it is slightly more tolerant than Douglas-fir. Information technology is the least shade-tolerant of the true firs in British Columbia and is much less tolerant than western hemlock, western redcedar, or Pacific silver fir. Thou fir is a versatile species that, although quite tolerant, has a growth charge per unit nearly equal to that of western white pino.

1000 fir is a ascendant climax species in some habitat types and a long-lived seral species in other types. Information technology usually grows in mixed-species stands where either fifty-fifty-aged or uneven-anile silviculture is proficient. In the zone of genetic intergrade betwixt grand and white fir, it is non possible to divide the 2 species and their hybrids visually. Silvicultural prescriptions and treatments are applied as if they were one species. Where grand fir is desired nether even-aged management, shelterwood cuttings are preferred because regeneration and early on growth are all-time in partial shade. It likewise regenerates satisfactorily on most sites, still, following seed tree or clearcutting (3,24). Following seedling establishment, the overstory should exist removed to encourage rapid growth in acme and bore.

Nether uneven-anile direction, 1000 fir regenerates adequately and normally outgrows the more tolerant western hemlock and western redcedar equally an understory tree. Certain classes of understory thousand fir saplings respond positively to release while others answer negatively (8,25). Pole-size and larger m firs respond well to release past thinning and selection cuttings if the crowns are vigorous (13).

Dissentious Agents- During the period of stand up evolution from institution to maturity, several factors influence stand growth and yield. Grand fir is rated medium in fire resistance amid species of the western white pine type; information technology is less resistant than thick-barked western larch, ponderosa pine, and Douglas-fir but more resistant than subalpine fir, western hemlock, and Engelmann spruce. Fire resistance is influenced by habitat. For example, in moist creek bottoms grand fir succumbs rapidly to footing fires, but on dry hillsides information technology is more resistant, largely considering of its deeper root system and thicker bark. The needles are quite resistant to common cold during the severest role of the wintertime. Grand fir leaves have been subjected to temperatures of -55° C (-67° F) without damage. Sudden extreme drops of temperature in the fall occasionally harm needles, but seldom are they fatal. Frost cracks and lightning scars appear more frequently on grand fir, nonetheless, than on its assembly in the Inland Empire. The cracks crusade little straight mortality just contribute to the spread of infection by disuse fungi. Frequently small patches of copse are uprooted or broken past the aggregating of snowfall in the crowns of dense young stands in the Inland Empire (9). In England young g firs from Vancouver Island and western Washington are reportedly susceptible to late jump frost and drought crack (two).

Susceptibility to heart rot and decay is i of the more of import factors in the management of grand fir. Indian paint mucus (Echinodontium tinctorium) is the most destructive fungus in forests due east of the Cascade crest (17). In the Blueish Mountains of Oregon and Washington, decay was reported responsible for losses of xiv percent of the gross merchantable cubic-foot volume and 33 percentage of the board-foot book in sawtimber-size g fir copse (1). Fungi enter the tree through small shade-killed branchlets in the lower crown. Afterwards closure of the branchlet stub, infections become dormant. Years later the infections are reactivated when mechanical injuries allow air to enter the heartwood where the dormant infections are located (seven). Therefore, centers of decay are closely related to logging scars, frost cracks, broken tops, and other mechanical injuries (21).

Indian paint fungus is rare in grand fir west of the Cascade crest where rapid growth rates close branch stubs quickly (vii). Armillaria spp. and Phellinus weiri are the ii almost important root rot fungi. Poria subacida and Heterobasidion annosum besides attack thousand fir (17).

Numerous insects attack grand fir. The western bandbox budworm (Choristoneura occidentalis) and Douglas-fir tussock moth (Orgyia pseudotsugata) have caused widespread defoliation, top kill, and mortality. The western balsam bark protrude (Dryocoetes confusus) and the fir engraver (Scolytus

ventralis) are the main bark beetles attacking grand fir. The fir cone moth (Barbara spp.), fir cone maggots (Earomyia spp.), and several seed chalcids destroy large numbers of thousand fir cones and seeds. The balsam woolly adelgid (Adelges piceae), ofttimes called "gout disease of fir," has destroyed grand fir in western Oregon and Washington and is a serious threat in southwestern British Columbia (12).

Special Uses

The soft white forest of m fir is a valued source of pulpwood. The wood also is commercially valuable as timber even though it is weaker and more prone to decay than many other species. The luxuriant leaf, symmetry, and deep greenish shiny color make grand fir one of the preferred species of Christmas trees grown in the Northwest. The attractive appearance of grand fir makes it valuable in recreation areas and urban plantings.

Genetics

Population Differences

At that place are no recognized varieties of grand fir, although a green coastal grade and gray interior grade are oft recognized. 5 fairly singled-out climatic forms of k fir have been identified. The differences are mainly physiological and ecological (9). Provenance trials with grand fir in Europe have resulted in ranking U.S. seed origins. Seed sources westward of the Pour crest are preferred for planting in England and the lowland sites in Europe (20). Significant differences in elevation growth between copse from sources due east and w of the Cascade crest have been reported only average growth of westside and interior seedlings is by and large well-nigh the aforementioned (29). About of the genetic variation available for tree improvement appears to exist amidst stands only genetic gains tin likewise be made by selecting individuals within stands.

Hybrids

Grand fir crosses with both the concolor and lowiana varieties of white fir. Several studies have shown hybridization and introgression between grand fir and white fir in a broad zone extending from the Klamath Mountains of northern California through southwestern Oregon and through the Oregon Cascade Range into northeastern Oregon and w-central Idaho (30). Chiliad fir has been crossed with several European and Asiatic species (19). Natural hybrids take been reported betwixt k fir and subalpine fir in northern Idaho (6).

Literature Cited

1. Aho, Paul East. 1977. Decay of thou fir in the Blue Mountains of Oregon and Washington. USDA Forest Service, Research Paper PNW-229. Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, UT. 18 p.
2. Aldhous, J. R., and A. J. Low. 1974. The potential of western hemlock, western redcedar, chiliad fir, and noble fir in Great britain. Forest Committee Bulletin 49. Her Majesty's Stationary Part, London. 105 p.
3. Boyd, R. J. 1969. Some instance histories of natural regeneration in the western white pine type. USDA Forest Service, Research Paper INT-63. Intermountain Wood and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, UT. 24 p.
4. Cochran, P. H. 1979. Gross yields for even-anile stands of Douglas-fir and white or one thousand fir east of the Cascades in Oregon and Washington. USDA Wood Service, Research Paper PNW-263. Pacific Northwest Woods and Range Experiment Station, Portland, OR. 17 p.
5. Cooper, S. 5., Thou. E. Neiman, R. Steele, and W. David. 1987. Forest habitat types of northern Idaho: A second approximation. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report, INT-236. Intermountain Enquiry Station, Ogden, UT. 135 p.
6. Daubenmire, R. F., and Jean B. Daubenmire. 1968. Wood vegetation of eastern Washington and northern Idaho. Washington Agriculture Experiment Station, Technical Bulletin 60. Pullman. 104 p.
7. Etheridge, D. Due east., and H. M. Craig. 1976. Factors influencing infection and initiation of decay by the Indian pigment fungus (Echinodontium tinctorium) in western hemlock. Canadian Journal of Wood Enquiry 6:299-318.
8. Ferguson, Dennis Eastward., and D. Fifty. Adams. 1980. Response of advance grand fir regeneration to overstory removal in northern Idaho. Forest Science 26(4):537-545.
9. Foiles, Marvin W. 1965. Grand fir, Abies grandis (Dougl.) Lindl. In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 19-24. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agronomics, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.
10. Franklin, Jerry F. 1968. Cone production past upper-slope conifers, USDA Forest Service, Enquiry Paper PNW-threescore. Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Portland, OR. 21 p.
11. Franklin, Jerry F., and C. T. Dyrness. 1973. Natural vegetation of Oregon and Washington. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report PNW-8. Pacific Northwest Woods and Range Experiment Station, Portland, OR. 417 p.
12. Furniss, R. Fifty., and V. M. Carolin. 1977. Western forest insects. U.South. Department of Agriculture, Miscellaneous Publication 1339. Washington, DC. 654 p.
13. Graham, R. T. 1988. Influence of stand density on western white pine, western redcedar, western hemlock, and thou fir tree and stand up evolution in the Mount West. In Time to come forests of the Mountain West: a stand culture symposium. p. 175-184. W. Schmidt, ed. USDA Wood Service, General Technical Report INT-243. Intermountain Research Station, Ogden, UT.
14. Haig, Irvine T. 1932. 2nd-growth yield, stand up, and book tables for the western white pine blazon. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Technical Bulletin 323. Washington, DC. 68 p.
15. Hall, F. C. 1973. Establish communities of the Blueish Mountains in eastern Oregon and southeastern Washington. USDA Forest Service, R6 Area Guide 3-ane. Pacific Northwest Region, Portland, OR. 135 p.
16. Hemstrom, M. A., S. E. Logan, and Westward. Pavlat. 1987. Plant association and management guide, Willamette National Forest. USDA Wood Service, R6-ECOL-257-B-86. Pacific Northwest Region, Portland, OR. 312 p.
17. Hepting, George H. 1971. Diseases of forest and shade copse of the United states. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agronomics Handbook 386. Washington, DC. 658 p.
18. Johnson, C. Chiliad., Jr., and S. A. Simon. 1987. Found associations of the Wallowa-Ophidian Province. USDA Forest Service, R6-ECOL-TP-255A-86. Pacific Northwest Region, Portland, OR. 400 p.
19. IUaehn, F. V., and J. A. Winieski. 1962. Interspecific hybridization in the genus Abies. Silvae Genetica 11:130142.
20. Lines, Roger. 1979. Natural variation within and between the silver firs. Scottish Forestry 33(2):89-101.
21. Maloy, Otis C. 1967. A review of Echinodontium tinctorium Ell. and Ev., the Indian paint fungus. Washington Agricultural Experiment Station, Message 686. Pullman. 21 P.
22. Minore, Don. 1979. Comparative autecological characteristics of northwestern tree species-a literature review. USDA Wood Service, General Technical Written report PNW-87. Pacific Northwest Woods and Range Experiment Station, Portland, OR. 72 p.
23. Pfister, Robert D., Bernard L. Kovalchik, Stephen F. Arno, and Richard C. Presby. 1977. Wood habitat types of Montana. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report 1NT-34. Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, UT. 174 p.
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26. Society of American Foresters. 1980. Forest comprehend types of the United States and Canada. F. H. Eyre, ed. Order of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.
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29. Steinhoff, R. J. 1978. Early growth of grand fir seedlings in northern Idaho. In Proceedings of the IUFRO joint meeting of working parties, vol. 2: Lodgepole pine, sitka bandbox, and Abies provenances. p. 359-365. B. C. Ministry of Forests, Vancouver, B. C.
30. Steinhoff, R. J. 1978. Distribution, environmental, silvicultural characteristics, and genetics of the Abies grandis-Abies concolor complex. In Proceedings of the IUFRO joint coming together of working parties, vol. 2: Lodgepole pine, sitka bandbox, and Abies provenances. p. 123-132. B. C. Ministry building of Forests, Vancouver, B. C.
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